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  • Founded Date 6 7 月, 2007
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Expert System Industry In China

The artificial intelligence market in the People’s Republic of China is a rapidly developing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI advancement started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms stressing science and innovation as the nation’s primary efficient force.

The initial phases of China’s AI development were sluggish and experienced significant challenges due to absence of resources and skill. At the beginning China was behind a lot of Western countries in terms of AI advancement. A bulk of the research study was led by scientists who had actually received higher education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the federal government of individuals’s Republic of China has actually steadily developed a national program for artificial intelligence development and became one of the leading nations in expert system research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to become a global AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “national AI groups” consisting of fifteen China-based business, consisting of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each business must lead the advancement of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s rapid AI advancement has significantly affected Chinese society in lots of areas, including the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, accommodation and food services, and manufacturing are the top industries that would be the most impacted by more AI deployment.

The economic sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in lots of elements as there are couple of current existing borders. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its very first national law resolving AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade limitations intended to limit China’s access to innovative computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the impacts of the Chinese government’s censorship regime on the advancement of generative synthetic intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research study and advancement of synthetic intelligence in China started in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the value of science and technology for China’s economic growth. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and development did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was a lack of AI-related research study in between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is due to the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union despite the Sino-Soviet split during the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists released AI research led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, throughout the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was difficult so China’s federal government approached these challenges by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and further offering government funds for research study tasks. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in philosophy from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s very first research study publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, smart automation and intelligence have become part of China’s national innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually even more expanded its research and development funds for AI and the number of government-sponsored research projects has drastically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy priority for the advancement of expert system, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, expert system was also mentioned in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At very same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the greatest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The very first award ceremony was held on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion coincided with the Chinese federal government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a significant turning point in China’s advancement of artificial intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the development of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the plan explained AI as a tactical technology that has become a “focus of worldwide competitors”. [14]:2 The document advised considerable investment in a number of tactical areas related to AI and called for close cooperation between the state and economic sectors. On the celebration of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between economic and military ends is an important component to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”expert system plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The exact same year witnessed the development of numerous application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) developed their AI processor chip research laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, launched its first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI industrial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to achieve this the State Council stated the requirement for huge talent acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, along with public and personal investments. [14] A few of the specified inspirations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI technique include the capacity of expert system for commercial transformation, much better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business across foundational, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system expanded to numerous fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the development of large language models (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists started establishing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Infotech, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively issued the regulations worrying deepfakes, which ended up being reliable in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei released its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on basic generative AI services safety requirements, consisting of specs for data collection and model training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Community of Common Destiny and aims to build AI policy discussion with establishing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed concern over AI security risks, including abuse of information or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, began utilizing news anchors produced with generative expert system to provide phony news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it rolled out a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in profits over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The 4th and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by financiers as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been authorized by the Chinese federal government. [33]

Since 2024, lots of Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have actually introduced AI video-generation tools to competing OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of major AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the forefront of AI technology will be critical to the future of global military and financial power competitors. [35] By 2025, the State Council aims for China to make fundamental contributions to basic AI theory and to solidify its place as a worldwide leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to become “the primary driving force for China’s commercial upgrading and financial transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the worldwide leader in the development of synthetic intelligence theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “looks for to meld state preparation and control while some operational versatility for companies. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, developing asymmetric advantages as they expand offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a top research study top priority and ranks AI first among “frontier industries” that the Chinese federal government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a strategic sector frequently supported by China’s government assistance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI funding primarily concentrated on innovative and applied research. [38] The federal government funding also supported numerous AI R&D in the private sector through venture capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research study showed that, while China is massively investing in all aspects of AI development, facial recognition, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide assistance on establishing China’s modern industrial development zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county picked as an experimental development zone. [40] and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in speculative locations. However, the focus of AI R&D differed depending upon cities and local commercial advancement and ecosystem. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong production industry, greatly concentrates on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech companies, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competition for computer system vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary partnerships play a vital function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate collaboration, public-private collaborations, and international partnerships and jobs with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top three around the world following the United States and the European Union for the overall number of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China surpassed the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of global AI-related journal citations. [43] In terms of AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI papers are generally sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had finished their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and enforcing commitments on AI companies, the total approach to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its very first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population creates an enormous amount of available information for business and scientists, which uses an essential advantage in the race of huge information. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s biggest number of internet users, creating huge amounts of data for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial acknowledgment is among the most commonly used AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of data from its homeowners helps further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not just conducive and important for corporations to more AI R&D however likewise offers tremendous economic possible bring in both worldwide and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The extreme development of the info and interaction innovation (ICT) market and AI chipsets in current years are two examples of this. [47] China has become the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft procedures stating that tech business will be obligated to make sure AI-generated material supports the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, avoids discrimination, respects intellectual property rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft steps, companies bear legal duty for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced content might not “prompt subversion of state power or the overthrowing of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a large language design to the public, business must seek approval from the CAC to license that the design refuses to respond to specific questions associating with political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be declined. [52]

In 2023, in-country gain access to was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that preserves libraries containing training data sets typically utilized for big language models. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers regional companies with training data that CCP leaders think about allowable. [8] In 2024, individuals’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has actually cautioned that the Chinese government utilizes generative synthetic intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese synthetic intelligence design DeepSeek has been reported to decline to address concerns connecting to things about the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most companies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial effect on China’s long-lasting economic development. In the past, traditional markets in China have actually struggled with the increase in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, operational costs are anticipated to lower while an increase in efficiency generates earnings development. [60] Some highlight the value of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers including expenses and lack of correctly trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are concerns about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income employees might be the most adversely affected by China’s AI development because of rising needs for workers with sophisticated abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s economic growth may be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related commercial development is focused in seaside areas rather than inland. [61]

An influential choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to build a “world-class” armed force by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on making use of unmanned weapons and artificial intelligence. [62] [63] It is investigating numerous types of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous lorries. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military demonstrated an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 unoccupied aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report released later on revealed a computer simulation of a similar swarm development finding and damaging a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is also establishing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese advancement of military AI is mostly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and fears of a widening “generational gap” in comparison to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to use AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, creating a typical operating picture, and speeding up battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) strategy, which seeks to integrate sensors and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software, automated cyberattack software, choice support, software, automated missile launch software application, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI community contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of borders exist between Chinese industrial business, university research study laboratories, the military, and the main federal government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of guiding AI advancement top priorities and accessing technology that was seemingly established for civilian purposes. To further strengthen these ties the Chinese federal government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from commercial companies and research institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to data collection and lower costs of data identifying to produce the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one price quote, China is on track to possess 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the potential to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in business working on militarily relevant AI applications, possibly approving it legal access to U.S. technology and intellectual property. [69] Chinese endeavor capital investment in U.S. AI companies in between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “particularly those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from purchasing U.S. technology firms, due to U.S. nationwide security concerns. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has actually been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from individuals’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have developed a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its design usage restriction for military purposes. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University introduced the first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to adopt AI as a discipline, especially considering that China deals with challenges in recruiting and maintaining AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have been operating in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the exact same percentage of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research study products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the variety of research documents produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th worldwide. [75] China particularly want to resolve military applications and so the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, recently developed the first children’s educational program in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field stayed in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are conversations about AI safety and ethical issues in both private and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the very first nationwide ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with particular emphasis on user security, data privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and quick innovation adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will stay in complete decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system published the Beijing AI principles calling for necessary requirements in long-term research study and preparation of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has been the most common subject in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and numerous nationwide federal governments have actually established legislation dealing with data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 intending to address new challenges raised by AI advancement. [80] [original research study?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was gone by the PRC congress, setting up a regulatory framework classifying all type of data collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech companies in China are needed to classify their information into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular guidelines on how to govern and handle data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou established a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements associated with ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI assesses the proof presented and applies relevant legal requirements. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based on fragmented judicial information can reach objective choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, teacher of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology business may deteriorate judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party management, political oversight, and minimizing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading companies

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have gotten attention for facial acknowledgment, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has looked for to motivate personal tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to worldwide AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of humiliation. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally ingrained reasons for China’s stress and anxiety towards protecting an international technological supremacy – China missed both industrial transformations, the one beginning in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to make the most of the technological revolution in today’s world led by digital technology including AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the national restoration proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post released by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese government authorities showed extremely keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and international security. This consists of knowledge of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly focus on cultivating competence and understanding of AI developments in China” and “funding, focus, and a determination among U.S. policymakers to drive large-scale essential change.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China might have unparalleled resources and enormous untapped capacity, but the West has world-leading proficiency and a strong research study culture. Instead of fret about China’s development, it would be wise for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research study and education. ” [91]

The Chinese federal government’s censorship program has actually stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI develops obstacles for holistic national security, including the dangers that AI will heighten social stress or have destabilizing results on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics including Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher oppression of workers and more severe social problems. [28]:90 Gao cites how the advancement of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, causing greater capital accumulation and political power in less financial actors. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state needs to be the primary accountable star in the location of generative AI (creating brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI threats intensifying military competitors in between countries which the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country however will have spillover effects. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from expert system have actually happened. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally optimistic relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted across 28 countries found that 78% of the Chinese public believes the advantages of AI outweigh the dangers, the greatest of any nation in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a study of elite Chinese college student discovered that 80% concurred or highly agreed that AI will do more great than harm for society, and 31% believed it should be regulated by the government. [93]

Human rights

The extensively utilized AI facial recognition has raised issues. [94] According to The New York Times, release of AI facial acknowledgment technology in the Xinjiang area to identify Uyghurs is “the first known example of a government deliberately using synthetic intelligence for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “among the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, specifically by local municipal police departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Artificial intelligence arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of expert system companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.

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